ABSTRACT
This article examines the phenomenon of political violence through the lens of education. It is based on a macro-analysis of political violence and discusses the importance of education for peace, democracy, and stability. It concludes that when studying the phenomenon of political violence, education matters because it instils citizenship values in the new generation, shapes the perception of social identities, and can cultivate a culture of peace or violence.
BY MARIA PATSIKOURIDI
Incidents of political violence can occur within both democratic and non-democratic states, or may arise between democratic states. This article examines the phenomenon of political violence through the lens of education because educational systems help shape the future world. They form future citizens and mould future societies. This article discusses the importance of education for peace, democracy, and stability, taking into consideration the values and beliefs that instils in the new generation.
The relationship between education and political violence is complex, as both are related to broader political, economic, and cultural developments [1] [2]. Hence, this article will not focus on micro-analyses of political violence because they are formulated on biological and psychological bases [3]. It will rather focus on macro-analyses since education is an institution that involves the individual, group values, and culture. When studying the phenomenon of political violence, education matters because it instils citizenship values in the new generation, it shapes the perception of social identities, and it can cultivate a culture of peace or violence.
1. CITIZENSHIP VALUES
Education instils citizenship values. In democratic societies, these are democratic values. Democratic values can be perceived in the broader meaning of communication and interaction channels between the citizens and the authorities and can reduce incidents of political violence. This occurs because democratic participation provides freedom of expression through non-violent means [4] [5]. Democratic societies promote heterogeneity of opinion, argumentation, and controversy, and design organisations to ensure that this is happening without the use of force [6]. In addition, the transparency of democratic regimes reduces the chances of individuals participating in anti-systemic organisations [7]. Thanks to these channels of communication, democracy increases citizens' satisfaction and society's tolerance of measures that may restrict civil liberties [8].
Education cultivates a citizenship mentality and ethos. Although education has been used by extremists as a catechism to propagate extremist ideologies under certain circumstances, it can also be effective in countering, preventing and criticizing the arguments of terrorists [9]. Hence, soft counter-terrorism efforts include education as a preventive measure that can make students resilient citizens, ready to combat the psychological, emotional, and mental claims of terrorists [10]. Moreover, education as a preventative measure may be feasible if the emphasis is on lifelong values, skills, and attitudes for economic, social, and personal security [11]. It is a long-term approach, achieved through a curriculum and teaching methods focused on the development of critical thinking and the cultivation of ethical behaviour [12]. Education, both in terms of content and teaching objectives, can tackle violent extremism [13], and therefore, political violence. This can be achieved by teaching diversity values, a critical understanding of history and power relations, religious literacy [14], and media literacy [15].
2. SOCIAL IDENTITIES
The theory of social identities recognizes the role that collective identity can play in intransigent political conflict [16]. Categorising different groups shapes social identities and contributes to the creation of prejudices, emphasising the role of the norm and the role of extremist perceptions [17]. Consequently, identities can affect behaviours. Studying cultural differences is important when studying modern conflicts [18]. Indeed, wars are now based increasingly on identity issues [19]. That has made war today a toxic mix of crime and politics, identities and global social forces, and large-scale brutality with limited direct combat [20]. Modern warfare targets cultural subgroups and cultural and religious symbols [21] [22]. Identities and conflicts have a cyclical sort of cause-and-effect. However, collective narratives, meaning ideas and discourses that exist in societies, can also be effective in addressing violent conflicts and achieving the peace process [23].
Education is not innocent in the process of creating social identities. It transmits not only principles and values, but also prejudices and stereotypes. It also reinforces or suppresses specific behaviours and ways of thinking. Education produces and reproduces the identities of nationality, gender, class, ability, or disability through curriculum, discourse, images, habits, daily practices, and bureaucracies. In that way, when we examine how social identities affect political violence, we also have to take into account the educational systems of the country or region to which we refer to.
3. CULTURE OF PEACE
The "Culture of Violence" is the deepest cause that leads an unresolved conflict to end brutally through the normalisation and naturalisation of violence [24]. Education alone can not change society in a fairer direction and establish a “Culture of Peace'', but it is a fundamental tool for it. As Shapiro (2010) mentions:
Education can not change the anger of the unemployed, of the culturally oppressed, nor embrace violence as an act of purification, nor can it touch the paranoid person or people who grew up in a violent or intolerant environment. However, recognizing the obstacles is not a reason to give up. Changing education to a fairer, and therefore more peaceful, direction requires the transformation of the whole spectrum of social institutions, values , and human practices, of which education is only one perspective. A "Culture of Peace" requires a much fairer world, with a change in gender relations, an end to racism and all forms of intolerance, and economic systems that meet the needs of the people rather than the profits of large organisations. Institutions that encourage cooperation instead of competition and division and, finally, a responsible relationship with nature [25].
CONCLUSION
Education is not a panacea for solving the problem of political violence. Nor do fundamental changes in the educational system guarantee a more secure and stable world. Investing in education can bear fruits only long-term and only in cooperation with the rest of the sections of social life, as is the political, economic, cultural, and social system. However, education has a central role in cultivating citizenship and diversity values, shaping social identities, and instilling a “Culture of Peace” in the minds and hearts of every generation. Therefore, in preventing and combating political violence, education plays a key-role.
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11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid., 126.
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